This chapter addresses the main challenges, limits and possible solutions for strongly reducing the energy per binary switching. Several paths are possible: the adiabatic logic using a slow clock, which cannot be used for high performance devices, logic stochastic resonance, feedback-controlled dynamic gate, or conventional logic with a reduction in the stored energy, therefore a decrease of device capacitance C (device integration) or applied bias V_(dd), which seems to be the most promising for future ICs. The reduction of the stored energy in conventional logic can be done with a strong reduction of V_(dd) using new physics and/or devices with 60 or sub-60 mV/dec subthreshold swing S, in particular with the main following concepts: energy filtering (Tunnel FET, with MOS-nanowires (NW)-carbon nanotube (CNT)-or Graphene, using band-to-band tunnelling to filter energy distribution of electrons in the source), internal voltage step-up (Ferroelectric gate FET, inducing a negative capacitance to amplify the change in channel potential induced by the gate), Nano-Electro-Mechanical-Structures, or Impact Ionisation MOS devices. We will focus here on the best ones, Tunnel FETs realized with ultrathin films, multi-gates and/or alternative channel materials, which could lead to ultra short channel devices with a strong reduction of the applied bias, together with very good performance and reliability.

关键词：绝热逻辑；能量过滤；冲击电离MOS

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The physics of collisionless shocks is a very broad topic which has been studied for more than five decades. However, there are a number of important issues which remain unresolved. The energy repartition amongst particle populations in quasiperpendicular shocks is a multi-scale process related to the spatial and temporal structure of the electromagnetic fields within the shock layer. The most important processes take place in the close vicinity of the major magnetic transition or ramp region. The distribution of electromagnetic fields in this region determines the characteristics of ion reflection and thus defines the con-ditions for ion heating and energy dissipation for supercritical shocks and also the region where an important part of electron heating takes place. In other words, the ramp region determines the main characteristics of energy repartition. All these processes are crucially dependent upon the characteristic spatial scales of the ramp and foot region provided that the shock is stationary. The process of shock formation consists of the steepening of a large amplitude nonlinear wave. At some point in its evolution the steepening is arrested by processes occurring within the shock transition. From the earliest studies of collisionless shocks these processes were identified as nonlinearity, dissipation, and dispersion. Their relative role determines the scales of electric and magnetic fields, and so control the characteristics of processes such as ion reflection, electron heating and particle acceleration. The determination of the scales of the electric and magnetic field is one of the key issues in the physics of collisionless shocks. Moreover, it is well known that under certain conditions shocks manifest a nonstationary dynamic behaviour called reformation. It was suggested that the transition from stationary to nonstationary quasiperiodic dynamics is related to gradients, e.g. scales of the ramp region and its associated whistler waves that form a precursor wave train. This implies that the ramp region should be considered as the source of these waves. All these questions have been studied making use observations from the Cluster satellites. The Cluster project continues to provide a unique viewpoint from which to study the scales of shocks. During its lifetime the inter-satellite distance between the Cluster satellites has varied from 100 km to 10000 km allowing scientists to use the data best adapted for the given scientific objective. The purpose of this review is to address a subset of unresolved problems in collisionless shock physics from experimental point of view making use multi-point observations onboard Cluster satellites. The problems we address are determination of scales of fields and of a scale of electron heating, identification of energy source of precursor wave train, an estimate of the role of anomalous resistivity in energy dissipation process by means of measuring short scale wave fields, and direct observation of reformation process during one single shock front crossing.

关键词：碰撞冲击；波在等离子体中；非平稳性

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In the Eastern Seaboard Intermodal Transportation Applications Center at Hampton University, we started an investigation of the air pollutants around heavily-travelled roadways, shipping channels, airports, and railroads with the purpose of obtaining real time measurements of pollutant concentrations and relating them to real-time weather and traffic information. In the first two cycles of our research program, we built a mobile unit containing a NOx and an ozone analyzer, and a weather station to provide simultaneous measurements of wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and solar intensity with the concentration measurements. The measured NO2 concentrations were compared to the predictions of CALINE4. Considering the effects of PM2.5 on public health and the 2008 US Census Bureau report, which showed that around 16% of American households live within 100 m of a highway having four or more lanes, an instrument for the measurements of PM10 and PM2.5 were added to our measurement capabilities for the current research cycle.

关键词：大气；气体健康；空气污染

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Department of Energy Technical Standard 1027 categorizes DOE facilities by the off-site radiation dose consequence resulting from a design basis accident, using this postulated event to determine if a facility is considered to be a radiological facility or a nuclear facility. The accident scenario used in this type of assessment is an uncontrolled release of the entire radioactive material inventory within the facility, using standard assumptions on air plume dispersion, uptake of radionuclides, distance to receptor, and other parameters that are consistent for all DOE facilities. Thus, the primary input on determining off-site dose in this assessment is the quantity of radioactive material within the facility. Controlling and tracking this inventory becomes the principal method of managing a facility's hazard categorization. A radiological facility is considered to pose very little risk to the public, while nuclear facilities have increasing amounts of controls required in their processes due to the increasing hazards of their operations and increasing radioactive material inventories. The dose threshold between a radiological facility and a Hazard Category 3 nuclear facility is a 10 rem dose to an individual located 30 meters from the facility. Prior to 2011, the amount of radioactive material inventory that would correspond to this 10 rem dose was 8.4 grams of plutonium-239 or equivalent material. Facilities track their radioactive material inventory relative to the threshold quantities of nuclides used in that facility, using a gsum of fractionsh method.

关键词：大气；大气污染；放射性元素

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This paper considers shortening of the control period for high-reliable distributed control systems. It also provides experimental results. We have proposed distributed control systems which utilize multiplexed control programs without adding any redundant controllers. The proposed systems achieve much higher reliability than conventional full duplex systems. Simulations of reliability analyses have been carried out and reliability of the proposed systems have been verified. The control logics in the controllers are compensated by each other by using a majority decision process instead of error detecting. Experimental results show that the system is functional even if one of the controllers fails in a distributed control system.

关键词：可编程逻辑控制器（PLC）；分布式控制系统（DCS系统）；多重冗余系统

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This chapter presents the concept of development and management of SOA applications within the configurable service platform which supports all phases starting from business process definition. The unique features of the platform include: business process compatibility, easy reconfiguration of composition schemes, visual support for requirements and service definition, QoS assessment (including communication services) and service execution control. Moreover, it illustrates how effective tools for SOA management may be developed within the SOA paradigm itself, and how this paradigm may be used to achieve their interoperability and flexibility.

关键词：业务平台；SOA；通信服务

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The welding process results in the formation of high concentrations of nano-sized particles loaded with toxic metals such as hexavalent chromium (Cr6+), nickel (Ni), and manganese (Mn). Welding fumes pose serious health risks to welders because fumes can cause respiratory and neurological ailments as well as cancer. Tightened occupational standards require an exposure reduction of at least 90% that is not satisfied by current control technologies. There is also potential public concern about the environmental risks associated with the release of welding fumes into ambient air. The overall objective of this demonstration was to develop an innovative silica precursor technology that can limit the oxidation of chromium by quenching oxygen species and coating metal particles in welding fumes with a thin, amorphous silica layer. An additional objective was to assess the benefit of increased particle size distribution. The demonstration verified the feasibility and practicality of implementing silica precursor technology into DOD welding operations. Silica precursor technology was demonstrated to be an effective means of controlling metal emissions in welding fumes. The two-fold approach of limiting oxidation potential and coating metal particles with an amorphous silica layer goes beyond previous control technologies by addressing all the toxic metals, regardless of their oxidation state. This project demonstrated, through both a laboratory study and field tests, the benefits of adding silica precursor during the welding process.

关键词：大气；空气污染；空气健康

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The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) and others are concerned about the hazard of acute residential carbon monoxide (CO) exposures from portable gasoline powered generators that can result in death or serious adverse health effects in exposed individuals. CPSC databases contain records of 755 deaths from CO poisoning associated with consumer use of generators in the period of 1999 through 2011, with nearly three-quarters of those occurring between 2005 and 2011. The majority of these incidents occur during power outages, or when a generator is used to provide power to a structure that is not wired for electrical power. Typically, these deaths occur when consumers use a generator in an enclosed or partially enclosed space or outdoors near an open door, window or vent. While avoiding the operation of such generators in or near a home is expected to reduce indoor CO exposures significantly, it may not be realistic to expect such usage to be eliminated completely. Another means of reducing these exposures would be to decrease the amount of CO emitted from these devices. In order to support life-safety based analyses of potential CO emission limits, a computer simulation study was conducted to evaluate indoor CO exposures as a function of generator source location and CO emission rate. These simulations employed the multizone airflow and contaminant transport model CONTAM, which was applied to a collection of 87 single-family, detached dwellings that are representative of the U.S. housing stock for that housing type. A total of almost one hundred thousand individual 24-hour simulations were conducted. This report presents the simulation results in terms of the maximum levels of carboxyhemoglobin that would be experienced by occupants in the occupied portions of the dwellings as a function of CO emission rate for different indoor source locations.

关键词：大气；一氧化碳泄露；室内空气健康

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Magnetic nanofluids are suspensions of nanometer sized magnetic particles stabilized aginst agglomeration and sedimentation. The uniqueness of magnetic nanofluid is that its properties and the location can be easily controlled by an external magnetic field, which is being exploited for many scientific, industrial, and commercial applications. During the search for superior coolants with better heat transfer efficiencies, it was found that magnetic nanofluids can produce a dramatic thermal conductivity enhancement (＞ 300%) due to the efficient transport of heat through the percolating nanoparticle paths. It has also been demonstrated that the field-induced thermal conductivity enhancement can be precisely and reversibly tuned from a low to very high value by varying the magnetic field strength and its orientation. Since the application of magnetic field enhances not only the thermal conductivity but also the rheological properties of the magnetic nanofluid, they find applications in smart cooling cum damping devices. This chapter summarizes the recent research on thermal conductivity of magnetic nanofluids. The effects of volume fraction, magnetic field strength, nanoparticle size, temperature, base fluid material, aggregation and additives on thermal conductivity of magnetic nanofluids are discussed in detail.

关键词：磁性纳米流体；悬浮液；热导率

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Nanofluids are not only valuable for their enhanced thermal properties - a large international research effort has been directed towards developing nanoparticles and nanofluids with tunable optical properties. Optical sensors, optical filters, solar absorbers, lasers, cancer therapies, and a whole suite of other applications can benefit from nanofluids with controlled optical properties. While there are many solid optical components commercially available, flowing fluid-based (both liquids and gases) systems are superior for transient applications. Optical engineering of nanofluids has been made possible by recent advances in fabrication techniques - enabling tight tolerance, highly reliable production of almost any material in a wide variety of shapes and sizes. In the right dose, the addition of well-designed nanoparticles can alter the optical properties of pure fluids (water, oils, and alcohols) from being transparent to bespoke fluids which are highly absorbing, scattering, or a mixture for any portion of the optical spectrum. Metallic nanoparticles, in particular, display the highly selective phenomenon of plasmon resonance which allows them to be utilized to create fluids which can interact strongly with a small band of light. Thus, the development of a new class of nanofluid-based optofluidic devices represents an emerging trans-disciplinary synthesis between nanotechnology, thermofluids, and optics. As a primer to this field and to encourage research activity in this area, this chapter will describe the state-of-the-art and the requisite theory behind this type of technology.

关键词：纳米流体；光学工程；增强热性能

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